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In addition to revealing the translation literature preferences of Estonians, the application that presents connections between translators and writers as a network provides insights into the undercurrents of history and the links between Estonian and world cultures.

When picking up an immortal Shakespearean tragedy, a childhood favorite by Lindgren, or an intriguing Scandinavian crime novel, we don’t always think about the effort it took to bring the work to Estonian. Through the often invisible labor of translators, the threads of dozens of languages and cultures have been interwoven over time, connecting Estonian culture with world culture, write Daniele Monticelli, Professor of Semiotics and Translation Studies at Tallinn University, Maris Saagpakk, Associate Professor of German Cultural History and Literature, and Krister Kruusmaa, Data Scientist at the National Library of Estonia.

The application’s underlying data comes from the Estonian National Bibliography, which compiles information about all publications written in Estonian, published in Estonia, or authored by or about Estonians. Specifically, to create the translation literature network, all fiction books translated into Estonian from other languages have been filtered out.

Since the national bibliography generally provides precise data on both the original language of a work and its translator, it is possible to map all connections between different authors and the individuals who have translated their works. These connections form a network where each author and translator is treated as a node, and the works connecting them serve as the edges. Thus, each translator is linked to every author whose works they have translated, and each author is connected to all the translators who have rendered their works into Estonian.

The result is an extensive network comprising 9,807 foreign authors and 4,027 translators, totaling 13,834 nodes. The network is based on 25,113 publications, forming 17,524 edges—an individual author may be linked to the same translator through multiple works, which results in thicker edges between them. Similarly, the size of the nodes corresponds to the number of works associated with a person, meaning the most frequently translated authors and the most prolific translators are represented by larger circles (Figure 1).

Since very few works of fiction were translated before the 19th century, the network starts from the year 1800. It is also important to emphasize once again that the network is based solely on literary works. This means that non-fiction, reference books, religious literature, and other genres are excluded. Additionally, the network does not include translated works that were published in forms other than books—such as serialized stories in newspapers, which constituted the majority of literary translations until the early 20th century.

Let’s first examine some general characteristics of the network. The reader may have already guessed that the edges of the network are colored according to the source languages of the translations. The most dominant color across the entire network is turquoise, representing English—over 45% of the authors in the network are from English-speaking countries. Following English, the next most common languages are Russian (orange, 13%), German (pink, 12%), and French (green, 6%). Finnish and Swedish each make up around 3–4% of the network. The remaining languages represent less than 1.5% of the total. However, English has not always been as dominant in every era, as will soon be revealed.

The graph resembles a dense ball of yarn, but this impression is created by the circular layout, which aims to prevent the network from spilling off the screen. In reality, the network can be considered sparse – meaning that the number of edges relative to the total number of nodes is relatively low.

More than half of the nodes in the network have only one edge. These are mostly authors who have been translated by just one person. Alongside them, a smaller number of highly-translated authors and prominent translators emerge. For example, in the case of less widely spoken languages, there is often one key translator who is responsible for translating the works of a large number of authors from that language. This is well illustrated by Leo Metsar and Mihkel Loodus, who have played significant roles in translating Czech and Lithuanian literature, respectively (Figure 2).

The Most Dedicated Translators

Using the data, it is possible to rank translators based on the number of works they have translated. Table 1 lists the top ten most industrious translators in Estonian translation history, according to the number of books they have translated. However, this ranking is not entirely precise, as the publications listed in the table, like those in the network, include reprints of the same work. In some cases, this can significantly inflate the numbers: for instance, Beekman’s translations of the extremely popular Astrid Lindgren books have been published multiple times.

Excluding the 20th-century polyglot Vladimir Beekman, the top ten list consists almost entirely of translators who primarily work from English, have been active mostly in the current century, and are still active today. The large volume of work by these translators is one of the reasons why the English section of the network is so dominant, and it also contains the largest nodes (Figure 3).

Translators of contemporary English may be relatively unknown to the wider public, but they often receive the largest returns in library loans. In some cases, this can amount to several thousand euros per year.

Many of these translators have worked on nearly all of an author's translated works: particularly popular are the translations of romantic short stories and crime novels, such as those by Nora Roberts, Barbara Cartland, and Agatha Christie. Among the translators listed in the table, the family duo of Matti Piirimaa (father) and Karin Suursalu (daughter) stands out. Their network provides a clear insight into the volume of translated English-language literature.

Throughout history, most translators have specialized in one or two languages. For example, at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, a common combination was German and Russian. However, Estonian translation history also boasts true polyglots. The translator with the largest language portfolio in the network is the legendary linguist Ain Kaalep (1926–2020), who translated from as many as 17 different languages. He is followed by Aleksander Kurtna, Jaan Kross, Leelo Tungal, and Andres Ehin, each of whom worked with 10–11 languages.

Sometimes, the diversity of languages goes hand in hand with the volume of work. In addition to the already mentioned Vladimir Beekman, who translated from eight languages, it is also worth mentioning Marta Sillaots. Although she translated from only four languages, her body of work was one of the most extensive during both the interwar period of the Estonian Republic and the Soviet era, spanning a total of 140 publications.

Whom do Estonians love to read?

It is no surprise that the most translated and most printed authors in Estonian translation history come from the same part of the network as the most prolific translators. These are the authors of romantic and crime novels translated from English: Barbara Cartland, Nora Roberts, and Susan Mallery. The number of their translated, best-selling, and reprinted works exceeds that of all other literary works translated into Estonian throughout history.

Figure 6 compares Barbara Cartland, who wrote over 700 books in her lifetime, with the absolute classic of world literature, Honoré de Balzac, who wrote only about 100 works. In Estonian, these authors' works have been published approximately 300 and 50 times, respectively.

The Most Translated Authors

Another highly translated author from the English-speaking world is Agatha Christie, with 165 publications to her name. Her works began to be translated into Estonian in the early years of the Republic of Estonia. Although Christie was somewhat considered a questionable author at the start of the occupation period, translations of her works gradually reappeared starting in 1968, and their number grew exponentially after the restoration of independence.

A similar trajectory can be observed with Arthur Conan Doyle, who has 90 publications in Estonian. His works were already being translated in the 19th century and were published both during the Republic era and the Soviet period, although his books appeared on the first list of banned books by the Estonian Communist Party in 1940. Doyle's works have also experienced a significant surge in popularity since 1991.

Among the most translated English-language authors are both bestsellers and classics – in addition to those mentioned earlier, figures like Terry Pratchett, Stephen King, Rex Stout, Jack London, William Somerset Maugham etc.

The most translated and published works from Russian are those of Lev Tolstoy and Anton Chekhov. They are followed by contemporary crime writer Darya Dontsova, Maxim Gorky, Alexander Pushkin, and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Tolstoy was popular from the late 19th century until 1917, less so during the Republic era, and most prominently during the Soviet period. Gorky, on the other hand, was widely translated both during the Republic era and especially in the Soviet period. After 1991, most of Tolstoy's works published have been reprints, and Gorky’s works are largely absent, likely due to his association with the Soviet regime. Chekhov’s translations, however, have been mass-published in book form only after the restoration of independence.

The German language network is quite sprawling, and there are no giant hubs to be found. The most translated and published authors are Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Erich-Maria Remarque, Hermann Hesse, and Thomas Mann. The French network, on the other hand, is more compact, with Alexandre Dumas standing out clearly, followed by Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Victor Hugo, Émile Zola, and, thanks to the countless reprints of The Little Prince, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry.

Among the most translated authors, prominent figures also include children's writers and authors of classic fairy tales: Astrid Lindgren, the Brothers Grimm, Charles Perrault, Francesca Simon, and Hans Christian Andersen.

The History of Translation as the Mirror of Estonian History

When studying the history of translation, it is crucial to analyze the changes that occur during different historical periods, both in terms of source languages and the authors and translators involved. Figure 7 shows the changes in the main source languages of translated literature since the last quarter of the 19th century.

The chart clearly shows three dominant phases in Estonian translation and cultural history: 1) German language and literature until the 1930s, 2) Russian language with a first surge during the Russification period (1880–1900) and later during the Soviet era, and 3) the rise of English language and literature since the early 1990s.

Although the dominance of English shows signs of stabilizing, it currently accounts for about two-thirds of all translated fiction. While English's dominance as a source language is not as complete as Russian's was during Stalin's era, it has lasted longer.

Historically, the context plays a significant role in translation choices and publishing opportunities. To examine these trends more closely, the network can be temporally framed.

For example, in the translations of the 19th century (Figure 8, left), German dominated almost as much as English does in the 21st century. The first generation of intellectuals in Estonia had received their education in German, and by the end of the 19th century, German was widely used as a local language. In this period's network, with its relatively sparse structure, we see many pink edges representing the German language, while towards the end of the century, Russian (orange), French (green), and English (turquoise) began to emerge.

It is important to note that until the last quarter of the 19th century, literature from other nations was also translated through the German language. Additionally, one must consider that much of the so-called original Estonian literature in the 19th century was actually translated, though it was not marked as such in bibliographies. The words written by or penned by often referred to translation in 19th-century texts. However, the network does not include texts where the translator is not explicitly mentioned or those marked as translations without the name of the original author.

The situation changes at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, when translations begin to be increasingly systematically labeled and distinguished from original works. Unlabeled translations start to be considered as plagiarism, and the concepts of author and translator are defined according to our modern understanding.

As history shows, the linguistic situation also changes radically. Although German literature is still very prominent on the right side of the 20th-century network (see the right side of figure 8), Estonians, tired of the patronage of the Baltic Germans, first turn to French (the green color represents a separate part of the network) and Scandinavian, as well as English-language literatures. At the same time, they also seek inspiration from other sources, such as Hungarian literature.

We have reached the sphere of influence of English-language literature

If we exclude the translations published after the restoration of independence of Estonia and focus on the 20th century up until 1991, we can see that German and Russian, as the historical contact languages of this region, still maintain some level of dominance. This is due to the cultural-political direction of the first and second halves of the century. However, the networks of English (turquoise) and French (green) also play a significant role.

The number of small differently colored nodes or pairs at the periphery of the network also increases. This means that the number of source languages grows, as well as the number of translators who have only translated works by a few specific authors.

As we move toward the era of restoration of Estonian independence, the previously sparse left-hand section of the network, reserved for English by the algorithm, becomes densely populated. While the 20th century saw a diversification in the source languages of literary translations, the network of the past 33 years reveals a reverse trend—a clear and uncontested dominance of English. Although it's well-known that after the restoration of independence, Estonia is strongly influenced by English and that English has been the most widely studied language for some time, such dominance in the network's overall structure is nonetheless somewhat surprising.

On one hand, the large number of new edges can be explained by changes in the publishing landscape and the framework conditions for translators, with less control and pressure and more freedom. On the other hand, the explosive growth of the book market and the globalization of reading preferences tend to overshadow other languages.

Currently, it is still possible to find translators for the literatures of smaller or more distant languages. However, the situation could become critical if universities cease teaching these languages. Without proficient speakers, translations would need to be done indirectly through English, much like they were once done via German or Russian.

Another interesting observation is that the network for the period 1991–2023 bears the closest resemblance to the overall network (1800–2024) presented at the beginning of the article. This indicates that the majority of new translations and reprints of older works in Estonia have been published in the past 30 years.

The list of translators expands with newer names, while the golden league of Estonian translation history—such as Beekman, Sirkel, and Rajandi—remains visible, though their influence appears smaller compared to the prolific translators of popular authors. Highlighting these distinctions and telling their stories, however, falls under the purview of qualitative translation history.

Summary

The network serves as an excellent example of how presenting existing data in a novel format can shed light on previously hidden perspectives of cultural history. Some of these perspectives have been illuminated here. Of course, there are far more questions to be posed to the network. While literary histories typically focus on the giants of high literature, it can be argued that this translation network is, in its way, democratic.

All authors and translators are represented equally, whether it is August Sang, who translated Cervantes, Molière, Goethe, Yesenin, and Lagerlöf, or Ralf Toming, who worked on Christie and Gardner. While their cultural significance differs, the network treats them as equivalent in scale. This perspective enables the examination of translation history not only as a component of identity-building literary history but also as part of the broader history of reading and a reflection of Estonia’s socio-political changes over time.

It is important to emphasize that the network can only present data available in databases. Significant work remains in Estonian translation history to identify and document the original texts that served as the basis for adaptations published in the 19th century and to fully map translations appearing in periodicals, especially in early journalism and also throughout the 20th century.

This work has begun as part of Tallinn University's translation history project, which aims to create a comprehensive database of translations, including both book publications and those appearing in periodicals since 1850.

In any case, this innovative way of presenting translation history data offers plenty of opportunities for discovery. We can explore the representation of various linguistic areas in Estonian translated literature, search for favorite authors, and uncover unexpected connections between foreign authors translated by the same individual. It also raises awareness of the work of thousands of people who have brought thoughts and stories told in other languages into Estonian.

Discover the netwotk in the Digilab of National Library of Estonia.

Since 2021, the history of translated literature and translation in Estonia has been studied under the Estonian Research Council-funded project Translation in History, Estonia 1850–2010: Texts, Agents, Institutions, and Practices at Tallinn University. The National Library's Digilab has developed an interactive tool that visualizes connections between translators and authors as a network. Try the application yourself and compare your findings with those presented in the article.